A Brief History of Economics Essay

Through his use of dialectical materialism, Marx not only changed the history of economic thought, but found great illumination for himself regarding the bonds of human society. The concept that seems relatively simple in today’s complex economic world was utterly revolutionary in the time of Marx: people develop their ideas about the world (and thereby, their ideas for how society should be organized and stratified) based on the material aspects of their lives. It was an elegant extension of basic Marxist theory: capitalism, according to Marx, is interested in offering naked materialism as a kind of booby prize to make up for the means of production being taken away from the people. If the people can no longer work for themselves and no longer work at perfecting their own craft as individuals, then, as Marx correctly deduced, people would require something to validate their work. This became the center of capitalism, as Marx understood it: materialism exists as a kind of justification for capitalism, and since materialism has permeated our culture to such an extreme degree, eventually social orders began to revolve around it. Hence, what capitalism serves as the cause of what Marx saw as nothing less than ongoing class warfare. It is interesting to note that Marx believed a violent revolution on the part of the proletariat was not simply a possible method of changing things, but actually served as the only method of changing things. This is because materialism was so embedded into class structures (which, in turn, was so embedded in power structures), and the only way for society to functionally survive was for it to become overturned completely. It is also interesting to note the ongoing effect that Marx has had on philosophic thought: materialism had previously been dislodged by Descartes and the famous declaration â€Å"I think, therefore I am;† as far as most people who pondered these things could conclude, thought preceded matter. However, Marx not only brought materialism to the philosophic forefront—the then-controversial idea that material preceded thought—but illustrated the notion that the abstractions of materialism had been concretized by capitalism into purchasable goods. 2: Marx and the Secret Source of Profit Perhaps the most enduring notion of Marx’s is the so-called secret of the source of profit under a capitalistic society†¦though such is Marx’s legacy of intellectual thought, a great many people simply accept this notion as reality: the source of profit is the surplus value that an employer gains from laborers. After all, the means of production have been taken from the people: skilled artisan cobblers have been replaced by factory line workers churning out shoe after shoe after shoe. The money saved by employing this assembly-line method of industrial production becomes pure profit for the employer. Interestingly, Marx tethered this to his own theories on circulating capital—that is, something that does not last, and is used up in the production of other goods and services, in direct opposition to fixed capital, which is traditionally held for over a year by a business or institution. Marx astutely deduced that the distinction between these concepts is not only relative, but arbitrary: the idea that capital held for 365 days is circulating and that capital held for 366 days is fixed is absurd. However, it allows the proletariat to essentially gloss over their own necessity to the entire institution of capitalism: they are led to believe that society is held up by the fixed capital of major investors and their long-term investments. In reality, society is held aloft by the ongoing purchases of the common man (and woman): their disposable income is burned off to provide them a sense that capitalism is worth it†¦it turn, their disposable income is used to make the rich richer, as the cliche goes, all the way up the capitalist pyramid. In Marx’s view, this is one of many ways that those in power forestall the seemingly unavoidable class war that he advocates: those with power—the purchasing power of the common man—are convinced they have none, and are bought off with trinkets. It is interesting to note that this echoes the master/slave morality inversion of Nietzsche. 3: Marginalists and the Economy In the evolution of economic theory, the impact of marginalism cannot be overstated. Once one had accepted the blunt realities of Marx—specifically, that society was organized based on the perceived value of items—the logical question remained: how does one quantify the value of an item? Marginalism illustrated the diminishing returns on the marginal utility of resold products, which dramatically impacted analysis of capitalist economy, the focus of economic analysis, and theories of value and distribution. Regarding the analysis of capitalist economy, marginalism helped solidify the supply and demand notion of economics as that of mainstream economic thought, as opposed to the labor theory of value espoused by Karl Marx. To put it mildly, this has had ongoing economic effects for the last century and a half. The focus of economic analysis shifted accordingly, as marginalism interacted with price theory: this allowed economics to project demand curves utilizing marginal rates of substitution as a means of determining not only when, but why a seller is willing to relinquish a product for a particular price. Perhaps one of the most lasting effects of marginalism on economic thought has been its effect on theories of value and distribution. With the previous measures in place, economists (as well as common people) now had a more-or-less accurate measure of determining the value of any given product in any given social context. Of course, this also effects the ongoing distribution of certain products to certain demographics in order to maximize profitability. Interestingly, this is one of the chief criticisms of marginalism as well: that it is a vague pseudoscience whose intent is to maintain not only the economic status quo, but the appearance of the status quo. It is no surprise, then, that Marxists continue to grapple with marginalist theory: they see it as a means of keeping the proletariat in check, and preventing any uprisings from them. 4: Thorstein Veblen: Survival of the Fattest Thorstein Veblen, for better or worse, specialized in bringing the human element into economic theory. Specifically, he theorized that the institution of the leisure class was a parasite feeding upon America: upon the backs of workers who are actually productive are a class who seek only profit and produce nothing but waste. He essentially created and popularized the notion of conspicuous consumption as the epitome of this theory: that wealthy individuals spend large amounts of money on ostentatious goods whose sole benefit is to publicly display their wealth to the world. Unfortunately, this has become an integral part of the economy: although an engineer might weep at the man spending over a hundred thousand dollars for a car, the American economy would be crippled if conspicuous consumption vanished overnight. Hence, the parasite metaphor: conspicuous consumption and naked profit helps the wealthy to bloat themselves on the backs of the poor until the entire enterprise inevitably crumbles under its own weight. Veblen perceived quite clearly that human notions about the world are social constructs created by individuals, and as time went on, those notions would change, necessitating a change in economic thought as well. He makes frequent comparisons to evolution to further this end: idle curiosity spurs innovation, innovation spurs conflict between the old guard and the innovators, and an economic Darwinism is born. The advent of industry and technological revolutions merely expanded his original point: the parasitic relationship continued unabated, as the innovations of the productive engineer class were inevitably utilized as means of conspicuous consumption and waste on the part of the leisure class. Planes are developed as a result of idle curiosity, for instance, but it is the leisure class that necessitates the invention of first class as a way of displaying their own status in the social hierarchy.

The Da Vinci Code Chapter 38-41

CHAPTER 38 Sophie scrutinized Langdon in the back of the taxi. He's joking. â€Å"The Holy Grail?† Langdon nodded, his expression serious. â€Å"Holy Grail is the literal meaning of Sangreal. The phrase derives from the French Sangraal, which evolved to Sangreal, and was eventually split into two words, San Greal.† Holy Grail.Sophie was surprised she had not spotted the linguistic ties immediately. Even so, Langdon's claim still made no sense to her. â€Å"I thought the Holy Grail was a cup.You just told me the Sangreal is a collection of documents that reveals some dark secret.† â€Å"Yes, but the Sangreal documents are only half of the Holy Grail treasure. They are buried with the Grail itself†¦ and reveal its true meaning. The documents gave the Knights Templar so much power because the pages revealed the true nature of the Grail.† The true nature of the Grail? Sophie felt even more lost now. The Holy Grail, she had thought, was the cup that Jesus drank from at the Last Supper and with which Joseph of Arimathea later caught His blood at the crucifixion. â€Å"The Holy Grail is the Cup of Christ,† she said. â€Å"How much simpler could it be?† â€Å"Sophie,† Langdon whispered, leaning toward her now,† according to the Priory of Sion, the Holy Grail is not a cup at all. They claim the Grail legend – that of a chalice – is actually an ingeniously conceived allegory. That is, that the Grail story uses the chalice as a metaphor for something else, something far more powerful.† He paused. â€Å"Something that fits perfectly with everything your grandfather has been trying to tell us tonight, including all his symbologic references to the sacred feminine.† Still unsure, Sophie sensed in Langdon's patient smile that he empathized with her confusion, and yet his eyes remained earnest. â€Å"But if the Holy Grail is not a cup,† she asked,† what is it?† Langdon had known this question was coming, and yet he still felt uncertain exactly how to tell her. If he did not present the answer in the proper historical background, Sophie would be left with a vacant air of bewilderment – the exact expression Langdon had seen on his own editor's face a few months ago after Langdon handed him a draft of the manuscript he was working on. â€Å"This manuscript claims what?† his editor had choked, setting down his wineglass and staring across his half-eaten power lunch. â€Å"You can't be serious.† â€Å"Serious enough to have spent a year researching it.† Prominent New York editor Jonas Faukman tugged nervously at his goatee. Faukman no doubt had heard some wild book ideas in his illustrious career, but this one seemed to have left the man flabbergasted. â€Å"Robert,† Faukman finally said,† don't get me wrong. I love your work, and we've had a great run together. But if I agree to publish an idea like this, I'll have people picketing outside my office for months. Besides, it will kill your reputation. You're a Harvard historian, for God's sake, not a pop schlockmeister looking for a quick buck. Where could you possibly find enough credible evidence to support a theory like this?† With a quiet smile Langdon pulled a piece of paper from the pocket of his tweed coat and handed it to Faukman. The page listed a bibliography of over fifty titles – books by well-known historians, some contemporary, some centuries old – many of them academic bestsellers. All the book titles suggested the same premise Langdon had just proposed. As Faukman read down the list, he looked like a man who had just discovered the earth was actually flat. â€Å"I know some of these authors. They're†¦ real historians!† Langdon grinned. â€Å"As you can see, Jonas, this is not only my theory. It's been around for a long time. I'm simply building on it. No book has yet explored the legend of the Holy Grail from a symbologic angle. The iconographic evidence I'm finding to support the theory is, well, staggeringly persuasive.† Faukman was still staring at the list. â€Å"My God, one of these books was written by Sir Leigh Teabing – a British Royal Historian.† â€Å"Teabing has spent much of his life studying the Holy Grail. I've met with him. He was actually a big part of my inspiration. He's a believer, Jonas, along with all of the others on that list.† â€Å"You're telling me all of these historians actually believe†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Faukman swallowed, apparently unable to say the words. Langdon grinned again. â€Å"The Holy Grail is arguably the most sought-after treasure in human history. The Grail has spawned legends, wars, and lifelong quests. Does it make sense that it is merely a cup? If so, then certainly other relics should generate similar or greater interest – the Crown of Thorns, the True Cross of the Crucifixion, the Titulus – and yet, they do not. Throughout history, the Holy Grail has been the most special.† Langdon grinned. â€Å"Now you know why.† Faukman was still shaking his head. â€Å"But with all these books written about it, why isn't this theory more widely known?† â€Å"These books can't possibly compete with centuries of established history, especially when that history is endorsed by the ultimate bestseller of all time.† Faukman's eyes went wide. â€Å"Don't tell me Harry Potter is actually about the Holy Grail.† â€Å"I was referring to the Bible.† Faukman cringed. â€Å"I knew that.† â€Å"Laissez-le!† Sophie's shouts cut the air inside the taxi. â€Å"Put it down!† Langdon jumped as Sophie leaned forward over the seat and yelled at the taxi driver. Langdon could see the driver was clutching his radio mouthpiece and speaking into it. Sophie turned now and plunged her hand into the pocket of Langdon's tweed jacket. Before Langdon knew what had happened, she had yanked out the pistol, swung it around, and was pressing it to the back of the driver's head. The driver instantly dropped his radio, raising his one free hand overhead. â€Å"Sophie!† Langdon choked. â€Å"What the hell – â€Å" â€Å"Arretez!† Sophie commanded the driver. Trembling, the driver obeyed, stopping the car and putting it in park. It was then that Langdon heard the metallic voice of the taxi company's dispatcher coming from the dashboard. â€Å"†¦ qui s'appette Agent Sophie Neveu†¦Ã¢â‚¬  the radio crackled. â€Å"Et un Americain, Robert Langdon†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Langdon's muscles turned rigid. They found us already?†Descendez,†Sophie demanded. The trembling driver kept his arms over his head as he got out of his taxi and took several steps backward. Sophie had rolled down her window and now aimed the gun outside at the bewildered cabbie. â€Å"Robert,† she said quietly, â€Å"take the wheel. You're driving.† Langdon was not about to argue with a woman wielding a gun. He climbed out of the car and jumped back in behind the wheel. The driver was yelling curses, his arms still raised over his head. â€Å"Robert,† Sophie said from the back seat,† I trust you've seen enough of our magic forest?† He nodded. Plenty. â€Å"Good. Drive us out of here.† Langdon looked down at the car's controls and hesitated. Shit.He groped for the stick shift and clutch. â€Å"Sophie? Maybe you – â€Å" â€Å"Go!† she yelled. Outside, several hookers were walking over to see what was going on. One woman was placing a call on her cell phone. Langdon depressed the clutch and jostled the stick into what he hoped was first gear. He touched the accelerator, testing the gas. Langdon popped the clutch. The tires howled as the taxi leapt forward, fishtailing wildly and sending the gathering crowd diving for cover. The woman with the cell phone leapt into the woods, only narrowly avoiding being run down. â€Å"Doucement!† Sophie said, as the car lurched down the road. â€Å"What are you doing?† â€Å"I tried to warn you,† he shouted over the sound of gnashing gears. â€Å"I drive an automatic!† CHAPTER 39 Although the spartan room in the brownstone on Rue La Bruyere had witnessed a lot of suffering, Silas doubted anything could match the anguish now gripping his pale body. I was deceived.Everything is lost. Silas had been tricked. The brothers had lied, choosing death instead of revealing their true secret. Silas did not have the strength to call the Teacher. Not only had Silas killed the only four people who knew where the keystone was hidden, he had killed a nun inside Saint-Sulpice. She was working against God! She scorned the work of Opus Dei! A crime of impulse, the woman's death complicated matters greatly. Bishop Aringarosa had placed the phone call that got Silas into Saint-Sulpice; what would the abbe think when he discovered the nun was dead? Although Silas had placed her back in her bed, the wound on her head was obvious. Silas had attempted to replace the broken tiles in the floor, but that damage too was obvious. They would know someone had been there. Silas had planned to hide within Opus Dei when his task here was complete. Bishop Aringarosawill protect me.Silas could imagine no more blissful existence than a life of meditation and prayer deep within the walls of Opus Dei's headquarters in New York City. He would never again set foot outside. Everything he needed was within that sanctuary. Nobody will miss me.Unfortunately, Silas knew, a prominent man like Bishop Aringarosa could not disappear so easily. I have endangered the bishop.Silas gazed blankly at the floor and pondered taking his own life. After all, it had been Aringarosa who gave Silas life in the first place†¦ in that small rectory in Spain, educating him, giving him purpose. â€Å"My friend,† Aringarosa had told him,† you were born an albino. Do not let others shame you for this. Do you not understand how special this makes you? Were you not aware that Noah himself was an albino?† â€Å"Noah of the Ark?† Silas had never heard this. Aringarosa was smiling. â€Å"Indeed, Noah of the Ark. An albino. Like you, he had skin white like an angel. Consider this. Noah saved all of life on the planet. You are destined for great things, Silas. The Lord has freed you for a reason. You have your calling. The Lord needs your help to do His work.† Over time, Silas learned to see himself in a new light. I am pure.White.Beautiful.Like an angel. At the moment, though, in his room at the residence hall, it was his father's disappointed voice that whispered to him from the past. Tu es un desastre. Un spectre. Kneeling on the wooden floor, Silas prayed for forgiveness. Then, stripping off his robe, he reached again for the Discipline. CHAPTER 40 Struggling with the gear shift, Langdon managed to maneuver the hijacked taxi to the far side of the Bois de Boulogne while stalling only twice. Unfortunately, the inherent humor in the situation was overshadowed by the taxi dispatcher repeatedly hailing their cab over the radio. â€Å"Voiture cinq-six-trois. Ou etes-vous? Repondez!† When Langdon reached the exit of the park, he swallowed his machismo and jammed on the brakes. â€Å"You'd better drive.† Sophie looked relieved as she jumped behind the wheel. Within seconds she had the car humming smoothly westward along Allee de Longchamp, leaving the Garden of Earthly Delights behind. â€Å"Which way is Rue Haxo?† Langdon asked, watching Sophie edge the speedometer over a hundred kilometers an hour. Sophie's eyes remained focused on the road. â€Å"The cab driver said it's adjacent to the Roland Garros tennis stadium. I know that area.† Langdon pulled the heavy key from his pocket again, feeling the weight in his palm. He sensed it was an object of enormous consequence. Quite possibly the key to his own freedom. Earlier, while telling Sophie about the Knights Templar, Langdon had realized that this key, in addition to having the Priory seal embossed on it, possessed a more subtle tie to the Priory of Sion. The equal-armed cruciform was symbolic of balance and harmony but also of the Knights Templar. Everyone had seen the paintings of Knights Templar wearing white tunics emblazoned with red equal-armed crosses. Granted, the arms of the Templar cross were slightly flared at the ends, but they were still of equal length. A square cross. Just like the one on this key. Langdon felt his imagination starting to run wild as he fantasized about what they might find. The Holy Grail.He almost laughed out loud at the absurdity of it. The Grail was believed to be somewhere in England, buried in a hidden chamber beneath one of the many Templar churches, where it had been hidden since at least 1500. The era of Grand Master Da Vinci. The Priory, in order to keep their powerful documents safe, had been forced to move them many times in the early centuries. Historians now suspected as many as six different Grail relocations since its arrival in Europe from Jerusalem. The last Grail† sighting† had been in 1447 when numerous eyewitnesses described a fire that had broken out and almost engulfed the documents before they were carried to safety in four huge chests that each required six men to carry. After that, nobody claimed to see the Grail ever again. All that remained were occasional whisperings that it was hidden in Great Britain, the land of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. Wherever it was, two important facts remained: Leonardo knew where the Grail resided during his lifetime.That hiding place had probably not changed to this day. For this reason, Grail enthusiasts still pored over Da Vinci's art and diaries in hopes of unearthing a hidden clue as to the Grail's current location. Some claimed the mountainous backdrop in Madonnaof the Rocks matched the topography of a series of cave-ridden hills in Scotland. Others insisted that the suspicious placement of disciples in The Last Supper was some kind of code. Still others claimed that X rays of the Mona Lisa revealed she originally had been painted wearing a lapis lazuli pendant of Isis – a detail Da Vinci purportedly later decided to paint over. Langdon had never seen any evidence of the pendant, nor could he imagine how it could possibly reveal the Holy Grail, and yet Grail aficionados still discussed it ad nauseum on Internet bulletin boards and worldwide-web chat rooms. Everyone loves a conspiracy. And the conspiracies kept coming. Most recently, of course, had been the earthshaking discovery that Da Vinci's famed Adoration of the Magi was hiding a dark secret beneath its layers of paint. Italian art diagnostician Maurizio Seracini had unveiled the unsettling truth, which the New York Times Magazine carried prominently in a story titled† The Leonardo Cover-Up.† Seracini had revealed beyond any doubt that while the Adoration's gray-green sketched underdrawing was indeed Da Vinci's work, the painting itself was not. The truth was that some anonymous painter had filled in Da Vinci's sketch like a paint-by-numbers years after Da Vinci's death. Far more troubling, however, was what lay beneath the impostor's paint. Photographs taken with infrared reflectography and X ray suggested that this rogue painter, while filling in Da Vinci's sketched study, had made suspicious departures from the underdrawing†¦ as if to subvert Da Vinci's true intention. Whatever the true nature of the underdrawing, it had yet to be made public. Even so, embarrassed officials at Florence's Uffizi Gallery immediately banished the painting to a warehouse across the street. Visitors at the gallery's Leonardo Room now found a misleading and unapologetic plaque where the Adoration once hung. THIS WORK IS UNDERGOING DIAGNOSTIC TESTS IN PREPARATION FOR RESTORATION. In the bizarre underworld of modern Grail seekers, Leonardo Da Vinci remained the quest's great enigma. His artwork seemed bursting to tell a secret, and yet whatever it was remained hidden, perhaps beneath a layer of paint, perhaps enciphered in plain view, or perhaps nowhere at all. Maybe Da Vinci's plethora of tantalizing clues was nothing but an empty promise left behind to frustrate the curious and bring a smirk to the face of his knowing Mona Lisa. â€Å"Is it possible,† Sophie asked, drawing Langdon back,† that the key you're holding unlocks the hiding place of the Holy Grail?† Langdon's laugh sounded forced, even to him. â€Å"I really can't imagine. Besides, the Grail is believed to be hidden in the United Kingdom somewhere, not France.† He gave her the quick history. â€Å"But the Grail seems the only rational conclusion,† she insisted. â€Å"We have an extremely secure key, stamped with the Priory of Sion seal, delivered to us by a member of the Priory of Sion – a brotherhood which, you just told me, are guardians of the Holy Grail.† Langdon knew her contention was logical, and yet intuitively he could not possibly accept it. Rumors existed that the Priory had vowed someday to bring the Grail back to France to a final resting place, but certainly no historical evidence existed to suggest that this indeed had happened. Even if the Priory had managed to bring the Grail back to France, the address 24 Rue Haxo near a tennis stadium hardly sounded like a noble final resting place. â€Å"Sophie, I really don't see how this key could have anything to do with the Grail.† â€Å"Because the Grail is supposed to be in England?† â€Å"Not only that. The location of the Holy Grail is one of the best kept secrets in history. Priory members wait decades proving themselves trustworthy before being elevated to the highest echelons of the fraternity and learning where the Grail is. That secret is protected by an intricate system of compartmentalized knowledge, and although the Priory brotherhood is very large, only four members at any given time know where the Grail is hidden – the Grand Master and his three senechaux.The probability of your grandfather being one of those four top people is very slim.† My grandfather was one of them, Sophie thought, pressing down on the accelerator. She had an image stamped in her memory that confirmed her grandfather's status within the brotherhood beyond any doubt. â€Å"And even if your grandfather were in the upper echelon, he would never be allowed to reveal anything to anyone outside the brotherhood. It is inconceivable that he would bring you into the inner circle.† I've already been there, Sophie thought, picturing the ritual in the basement. She wondered if this were the moment to tell Langdon what she had witnessed that night in the Normandy chateau. For ten years now, simple shame had kept her from telling a soul. Just thinking about it, she shuddered. Sirens howled somewhere in the distance, and she felt a thickening shroud of fatigue settling over her. â€Å"There!† Langdon said, feeling excited to see the huge complex of the Roland Garros tennis stadium looming ahead. Sophie snaked her way toward the stadium. After several passes, they located the intersection of Rue Haxo and turned onto it, driving in the direction of the lower numbers. The road became more industrial, lined with businesses. We need number twenty-four, Langdon told himself, realizing he was secretly scanning the horizon for the spires of a church. Don't be ridiculous.A forgotten Templar church in this neighborhood? â€Å"There it is,† Sophie exclaimed, pointing. Langdon's eyes followed to the structure ahead. What in the world?The building was modern. A squat citadel with a giant, neon equal-armed cross emblazoned a top its facade. Beneath the cross were the words: DEPOSITORY BANK OF ZURICH Langdon was thankful not to have shared his Templar church hopes with Sophie. A career hazard of symbologists was a tendency to extract hidden meaning from situations that had none. In this case, Langdon had entirely forgotten that the peaceful, equal-armed cross had been adopted as the perfect symbol for the flag of neutral Switzerland. At least the mystery was solved. Sophie and Langdon were holding the key to a Swiss bank deposit box. CHAPTER 41 Outside Castel Gandolfo, an updraft of mountain air gushed over the top of the cliff and across the high bluff, sending a chill through Bishop Aringarosa as he stepped from the Fiat. I should haveworn more than this cassock, he thought, fighting the reflex to shiver. The last thing he needed to appear tonight was weak or fearful. The castle was dark save the windows at the very top of the building, which glowed ominously. The library, Aringarosa thought. They are awake and waiting.He ducked his head against the wind and continued on without so much as a glance toward the observatory domes. The priest who greeted him at the door looked sleepy. He was the same priest who had greeted Aringarosa five months ago, albeit tonight he did so with much less hospitality. â€Å"We were worried about you, Bishop,† the priest said, checking his watch and looking more perturbed than worried. â€Å"My apologies. Airlines are so unreliable these days.† The priest mumbled something inaudible and then said,† They are waiting upstairs. I will escort you up.† The library was a vast square room with dark wood from floor to ceiling. On all sides, towering bookcases burgeoned with volumes. The floor was amber marble with black basalt trim, a handsome reminder that this building had once been a palace. â€Å"Welcome, Bishop,† a man's voice said from across the room. Aringarosa tried to see who had spoken, but the lights were ridiculously low – much lower than they had been on his first visit, when everything was ablaze. The night of stark awakening. Tonight, these men sat in the shadows, as if they were somehow ashamed of what was about to transpire. Aringarosa entered slowly, regally even. He could see the shapes of three men at a long table on the far side of the room. The silhouette of the man in the middle was immediately recognizable – the obese Secretariat Vaticana, overlord of all legal matters within Vatican City. The other two were high-ranking Italian cardinals. Aringarosa crossed the library toward them. â€Å"My humble apologies for the hour. We're on different time zones. You must be tired.† â€Å"Not at all,† the secretariat said, his hands folded on his enormous belly. â€Å"We are grateful you have come so far. The least we can do is be awake to meet you. Can we offer you some coffee or refreshments?† â€Å"I'd prefer we don't pretend this is a social visit. I have another plane to catch. Shall we get to business?† â€Å"Of course,† the secretariat said. â€Å"You have acted more quickly than we imagined.† â€Å"Have I?† â€Å"You still have a month.† â€Å"You made your concerns known five months ago,† Aringarosa said. â€Å"Why should I wait?† â€Å"Indeed. We are very pleased with your expediency.† Aringarosa's eyes traveled the length of the long table to a large black briefcase. â€Å"Is that what I requested?† â€Å"It is.† The secretariat sounded uneasy. â€Å"Although, I must admit, we are concerned with the request. It seems quite†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Dangerous,† one of the cardinals finished. â€Å"Are you certain we cannot wire it to you somewhere? The sum is exorbitant.† Freedom is expensive. â€Å"I have no concerns for my own safety. God is with me.† The men actually looked doubtful.† The funds are exactly as I requested?† The secretariat nodded. â€Å"Large-denomination bearer bonds drawn on the Vatican Bank. Negotiable as cash anywhere in the world.† Aringarosa walked to the end of the table and opened the briefcase. Inside were two thick stacks of bonds, each embossed with the Vatican seal and the title PORTATORE, making the bonds redeemable to whoever was holding them. The secretariat looked tense. â€Å"I must say, Bishop, all of us would feel less apprehensive if these funds were in cash.† I could not lift that much cash, Aringarosa thought, closing the case. â€Å"Bonds are negotiable as cash. You said so yourself.† The cardinals exchanged uneasy looks, and finally one said,† Yes, but these bonds are traceable directly to the Vatican Bank.† Aringarosa smiled inwardly. That was precisely the reason the Teacher suggested Aringarosa get the money in Vatican Bank bonds. It served as insurance. We are all in this together now. â€Å"This is a perfectly legal transaction,† Aringarosa defended. â€Å"Opus Dei is a personal prelature of Vatican City, and His Holiness can disperse monies however he sees fit. No law has been broken here.† â€Å"True, and yet†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The secretariat leaned forward and his chair creaked under the burden. â€Å"We have no knowledge of what you intend to do with these funds, and if it is in any way illegal†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Considering what you are asking of me,† Aringarosa countered,† what I do with this money is not your concern.† There was a long silence. They know I'm right, Aringarosa thought. â€Å"Now, I imagine you have something for me to sign?† They all jumped, eagerly pushing the paper toward him, as if they wished he would simply leave. Aringarosa eyed the sheet before him. It bore the papal seal. â€Å"This is identical to the copy you sent me?† â€Å"Exactly.† Aringarosa was surprised how little emotion he felt as he signed the document. The three men present, however, seemed to sigh in relief.† Thank you, Bishop,† the secretariat said. â€Å"Your service to the Church will never be forgotten.† Aringarosa picked up the briefcase, sensing promise and authority in its weight. The four menlooked at one another for a moment as if there were something more to say, but apparently therewas not. Aringarosa turned and headed for the door. â€Å"Bishop?† one of the cardinals called out as Aringarosa reached the threshold. Aringarosa paused, turning. â€Å"Yes?† â€Å"Where will you go from here?† Aringarosa sensed the query was more spiritual than geographical, and yet he had no intention of discussing morality at this hour. â€Å"Paris,† he said, and walked out the door.

Bus Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Bus - Essay Example Plainly, this is the adjustment period of a team. d. Performing – the stage where each team member has already adjusted with each other and can already work together. Each team member can now disagree constructively because they are now fully adjusted with each other (Zenger, n.d.). Typical example is a new student where he or she has to adjust to the members of the class. In the class, the new student is anxious on how he or she would fit in and gain new friends (forming). Eventually, differences of personality between him or her and other member of the class emerges which usually leads to clashes or conflicts (storming). Then each member of the class found a way to avoid such conflicts and adjust with each other (norming). Finally, each class member has fully adjusted with each other and are able to carry group projects smoothly (performing). Zenger, John G. et. al. (n.d.).FOUR PHASES OF TEAM DEVELOPMENT: Forming-Storming-Norming-Performing. Leading Teams. Business One Irwin, 1818 Ridge Rd., Homewood, IL 60430. Available at http://www4.uwsp.edu/centers/sieo/documents/pdf/leadershipLibrary/FOURPHASESOFTEAMDEVELOPMENT.pdf. retrieved on January 23,

Healthcare Qui Tam Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Healthcare Qui Tam - Term Paper Example Healthcare Qui Tam In Virginia, many hospitals were billing for outpatient procedures with codes kept for physician’s office visits rather than an outpatient procedure performed at the health center. Medicare pays a high rate for physician’s office appointments to mirror the cost of their operating cost (Warren & Benson Group, 2009). Hospitals obtain a separate facilities fee to settle the overhead cost. Therefore, the correct repayment rates for hospital outpatient services are lesser. The hospitals agreed to a payment of $3 million. A Pennsylvania hospital settled on paying a $2.7 million defrayal due to its upcoding fraud. The center was submitting claims for a multifaceted form of pneumonia when the accurate diagnosis showed a simpler form, which is compensated at a lower rate. The hospital decided to pay $500,000 for other upcodings with counterfeit claims for septicemia (Warren & Benson Group, 2009). A Florida hospital decided to pay $2,531,000 for issuing false claims for laser procedures executed as part of post cataract elimination surgery by demonstrating that the procedures were executed after the 39-day post-operative phase. It is also issued claims for actions, which were either never upcoded or rendered. Finally, they issued claims for two management services and evaluations per patient visit. Finally, a Hawaii doctor agreed to recompense a $2.1 million settlement for issuing false claims to Medicaid. The doctor operated a pharmacy in his hospital. The doctor billed Medicaid for providing expensive drugs when the clinic issued cheaper generic substitutes (Warren & Benson Group, 2009). ... A Florida hospital decided to pay $2,531,000 for issuing false claims for laser procedures executed as part of post cataract elimination surgery by demonstrating that the procedures were executed after the 39-day post-operative phase. It is also issued claims for actions, which were either never upcoded or rendered. Finally, they issued claims for two management services and evaluations per patient visit. Finally, a Hawaii doctor agreed to recompense a $2.1 million settlement for issuing false claims to Medicaid. The doctor operated a pharmacy in his hospital. The doctor billed Medicaid for providing expensive drugs when the clinic issued cheaper generic substitutes (Warren & Benson Group, 2009). Question 3 The following procedure could be used to admit a patient to a hospital, which upholds the law about the required number of Medicare and Medicaid referrals. Permission letter always should be issued before the admission of the person in the hospital (McCarty, 2008). The patient sho uld be given Pre-requisite permission for a medical procedure and not for general consultations. The beneficiary will be urged to furnish a photocopy of a valid CGHS card, a request letter from CGHS, or a photocopy of the specialist’s professional advice. After that, then the patient will be offered an admission memo. In case of a therapeutic emergency, the hospital accepted under CGHS, shall not refuse or deny admission or demand early deposit from the concerned patient. Nevertheless, the hospital accepted under CGHS, shall offer credit facilities to the respective patient on issuing of a valid CGHS card (McCarty, 2008). Rooted in the virtues of the case study on an

The Argument in Favor of Arabic in Qatari Schools Term Paper

The Argument in Favor of Arabic in Qatari Schools - Term Paper Example Those who are elated believe that this is a â€Å"validation of their mother tongue† (Huge Response), while those who are opposed are incredibly worried about the job opportunities for graduates, as well as the universities international accreditation (Compromising). Thought his decision is doubtless controversial, it is also incredibly necessary – Qatar university has been bowing to international pressures and dissatisfying its student population for too long with its regressive insistence that all courses, regardless of subject, be taught in Arabic. This decision takes important choices out of the hands of students, where they belong. Probably the single most important reason to back this decision is that it further empowers students at the university to be in control of their own education. Previous to this decision, it was necessary for everyone entering the university to pass an English aptitude test (Arabic vs English), and those who failed to do so would have to spend one or more years on their English aptitude before being admitted. This is an incredibly foolish decision, as it forces every student, regardless of their particular need or career aspiration to undergo what could be for them unnecessary training. There is nothing stopping members of Qatar University who will need specialized English training to accomplish their goals in their careers from taking those English courses, yet this stops the wasteful practice of forcing someone who, for instance, is certain they want to achieve a career in the Qatari government, from learning a language that will not be useful to them. Beyond simply giving those who do not need specialized English the opportunity to learn without forcing themselves to learn a foreign tongue, this decision also provides more freedom for those who do wish to learn English as part of their education. Previously, such English abilities were a prerequisite to taking any class at the university. Now, students can choose when and how to be able to strengthen their English skills – they can do it before they attend the university, as they would have had to do under the previous system, but they can also now choose to take English classes along with their other studies, or even examine their job prospects after graduation, and then take additional English as necessary. When one examines the subjects covered by this decision, it simply makes good sense. The subjects now taught in Arabic will be â€Å"Law, Media Studies, Business Administration and International Affairs† – which all make sense to be taught in Arabic. Though in the 1980s it might have been necessary to speak English to succeed in those areas, more and more Arabic will be the norm as Arab countries grow more powerful and prominent on the international stage. Why, for instance, would someone studying Qatari law need to speak English? The law they will be studying and practicing is written in Arabic. Furthermore, more and more international corporations are establishing Arabic as a language of commerce so English requirements are less stringent than they used to be. Finally, a majority of students support this decision – by about twenty percent (Huge Response). It is understandable that many people think speaking English will be helpful on the job front and on the international stage – but this does not mean that it should be a required course for students at Qatar University. The job prospects of Americans would certainly be improved if they had knowledge of

Adult Bible study on part of the Book of John Coursework

Adult Bible study on part of the Book of John - Coursework Example egan to form which identified him with  John the Apostle.  This understanding remained in place until the end of the 18th century.3 Today the majority of scholars do not believe that John or any other eyewitness wrote it, and trace it instead to a "Johannine community" which traced its traditions to John. The gospel developed over time in various stages showing signs of having been composed in three layers, reaching its final form about 90-100 AD 4 and summarized by  Raymond Brown  as follows: 5 as â€Å"Signs Gospel.†7 This hypothetical "Signs Gospel" of Christs miracles, independent of the synoptic gospels, is believed to have been circulating before the year 70 AD. Bultmanns conclusion was controversial, nevertheless, scholars such as Raymond Brown continue to consider this hypothesis, plausible. They believe the original of the "Signs Gospel"   to be by the â€Å"beloved disciple† arguing that the disciple who formed this community was a companion of Jesus Christ from John 21:24 which states that the â€Å"beloved disciple† wrote an account of the life of Jesus.   However, this disciple died unexpectedly, necessitating that a revised gospel be written (John 21:23). Paul Anderson believes, it may be that John â€Å"is the source" of the Johannine tradition but "not the final writer of the tradition."8   Scholars are no longer looking for the identity of a single writer but for numerous authors involved in the gospels development over a period of time and in several

The Law of Evidence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

The Law of Evidence - Essay Example Within the Received View, the importance of testimony in the language of perception runs even deeper. Our daily conversations and descriptions of events are suffused with opinion, interpretation, and evaluation. Often we are allowed only to agree with the leading questions of our conversation partners, questions themselves suffused with assumptions, opinions, interpretations, and evaluation (Pattenden, 1986). Such conversations are about matters of interest but are, much more, occasions by which the speakers constitute and reform their relationship, an enterprise often well served by the sharing of opinions and judgments. The factual accuracy of the accounts is usually of less significance than self-revelation and invitations to reciprocity. By contrast, testimony in response to non-leading questions in the language of perception provides the jury exactly what it needs to decide the case according to the norms embedded in the instructions: an artificially stripped-down, value-free account of the witness's perceptions (Allen, 2005). These perceptions are a kind of "prime matter," as Aristotle put it, utterly plastic to both the jury's empirical generalizations and, more important, to the legal norms embedded in the instructions. Testimony in the language of perception reduces the likelihood that the jury will simply adopt the moral or political judgments smuggled into the "descriptions" by an authoritative or sympathetic witness. It is often suggested that the vigour with which the rule against hearsay is still applied in criminal cases is attributable to the phenomenon of trial by jury in criminal trials on indictment. Juries, it is said, cannot be expected to assess properly the reliability of hearsay evidence on a case-by-case basis, and thus it is preferable that a blanket ban on such evidence be maintained. Concern about the ability of juries to handle hearsay evidence was particularly prevalent in the 19th century, but its influence on current hearsay doctrine is still evident. 'It is probably no accident', Tapper has pointed out, 'that the hearsay rule is the same in both civil and criminal proceedings where the mode of trial is the same, whether in both cases by judge and jury as in the United States, or by judge alone as in South Africa; but different in England and Scotland, where the form of trial is quite different in civil and criminal proceedings.' Further, in Continental jurisdictions, where ve ry little reliance is placed on jury trial, there is no rule against hearsay of the sophisticated variety that exists in England. In Germany, for example, there is no formal ban on oral hearsay (although, in practice, such evidence is usually adduced only if the maker of the statement is unavailable, or to supplement her or his testimony and written hearsay is, subject to minor exceptions, freely admissible. France, like Germany, does not have a formal hearsay rule. The broad drift of the law of evidence has been to admit more and more hearsay evidence, and for the constitutional jurisprudence surrounding the

TD 4- HRM - 402 Delivering Training and Development Essay

TD 4- HRM - 402 Delivering Training and Development - Essay Example Following the amount of factual data and interpersonal skills needed, the blended learning method is the most suitable as each of the individual methods used contribute to more quality delivery of training and development. Since lengthy sessions are involved in delivering facts and developing skills, the rationale of choosing the blended learning method is to ensure that different learning levels are adapted as various departments within Wal-Mart require different levels of competency from different ranks of employees(United States Department of Labor, 2010), Guthrie, A. (2014). Wal-Mart International Head Sees Difficult Operating Environment. The Wall Street Journal. Accessed online on January 19, 2015 from http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303426304579403663162388876 United States Department of Labor. (2010). Best Practices for the Development, Delivery, and Evaluation of Susan Harwood Training Grants. Accessed online on January 19, 2015 from

Impact of Leadership and Motivation on Organizational Culture and Essay

Impact of Leadership and Motivation on Organizational Culture and Performance - Essay Example A review of a considerable proportion of existing literature that has been published in the field of leadership and its impacts on organizational culture and performance finds that these three factors have been independently interconnected. Experiential researchers have mentioned that a true leader will always play a crucial role in enhancing organizational culture and subsequently performance. Furthermore, a number of aspects of the organizational culture literature imply that the role played by leaders in a critical enabler of creation and maintenance of specific types of culture. Equally, the literature published in the field of leadership states that the capability of understanding and work in a culture is a prerequisite to becoming an effective leader. However, in spite of the inherent and explicit linkage between leadership, organizational culture and performance are segments of organizational theory, very little concentration has been devoted to understanding the association b etween the concepts and the effect that such a relationship may have on organizational performance. The deficiency of critical literature exploring the performance repercussion of the links between leadership and organizational culture is highly surprising given the fact that there are plenty of reference regarding the references to the importance of leadership and organizational culture as far as the smooth functioning of an organization is concerned. A brief overview of the history of literature regarding the topic of leadership finds that the researches on leadership and organizational performances can be broadly classified into a number of relevant categories. Early researches on leadership emphasized on identifying the personality traits that characterized successful leaders. According to trait theories successful leaders are born and they have certain instinctive qualities that differentiate them from no leaders. However, the difficulty in classifying and corroborating these a ttributes led to a pervasive criticism that in turn paved way for the emergence of style and behavioral leadership approaches. Behavioral and style oriented leadership shifted the focus away from the attributes possessed by leaders to the behavior exhibited by them.

Linguistic and Literary Issues in A Tale of Two Cities Essay

Linguistic and Literary Issues in A Tale of Two Cities - Essay Example This paper is a discussion of the Linguistic and Literary Issues in â€Å"A Tale of Two Cities†.A major characteristic of â€Å"A Tale of Two Cities† by Charles Dickens is the tightly unified  subplots of the novel. Throughout the novel, the novelist has been careful in adroitly interlinking the different subplots. The novel mainly deals with two parallel plots: the love relation between Charles Darnay and Lucy Manette and the historical events connected with French Revolution. However, there are several other underlying subplots distributed throughout the three Books of the novel. They include the story of the great sacrifice by the good-for-nothing lawyer Sydney Carton, the comparison between the two cities of London and Paris, the atrocities of the aristocrats etc along with the stories within story such as the imprisonment of Dr. Manette, the story of Madame Defarge. The overall setting of the novel is based on these interconnected subplots which contribute to the each other as well as to the meaning of the novel in general. The novelist has been effective in presenting the major themes of the novel through the literary device of setting. It means that the setting of the novel which incorporates the interrelated subplots functions as a literary device to the novelist in his ultimate conveyance of the major themes. Therefore, the subplots in â€Å"A Tale of Two Cities† work in relation to each other to reveal the major themes of the novel.  

Lev Vygotsky’s Theory Essay Example for Free

Lev Vygotsky’s Theory Essay The development or the growing-up process of a child has been considered as the most critical and crucial part of a person’s life. It is in this stage where most changes take place which determines the strength or weakness of the foundations of one’s skills and capabilities as he or she grows up. Human development has also been an interesting topic or research in the field of psychology over the years. Theories and concepts have been formulated and developed in order to create a wide understanding of the process of human development as it plays a significant part in a person’s foundation as an adult. The developmental process of a child includes several aspects like the physiological, emotional, and cognitive development. In this paper, the focus shall be on cognitive development and the process of language acquisition, as proposed and theorized by Lev Vygotsky. What is Cognitive Development and Language Acquisition? Cognitive development is a part of the overall dynamic process of human maturity. In current media, a lot of products like milk, supplements, and health commodities for children have been advertised to contribute on improving the wellness of a child’s cognitive development. This shows how the current society values this aspect of child development with special importance. Cognitive development pertains to how an individual understands and grasps ideas through learned factors and genetics as well. This developmental aspect is made up of five fields, namely, information processing, intelligence, reasoning, language development, and memory (Wells, 2008). Understanding the whole cognitive development of a child may not be complete without understanding these core fields. However, this paper shall focus on one area which is language development. The definition of intelligence and cognitive development has also become a popular debate among psychologists like Vygotsky and Piaget. Piaget defines intelligence as the ability of an individual to adapt to his or her environment through several adaptation models which include the concepts of assimilation and accommodation, both of which place stronger emphasis on the individual (cited in Lloyd, 1995). On the other hand, Vygotsky argues that cognitive development refers to the capacity of a person to learn through instruction with an emphasis on the environment. Moreover, Vygotsky saw the capability of individuals to learn through instruction as the basic feature of human intelligence (cited in Lloyd, 1995). In medical terms, language development can be identified as the process wherein the complexity of symbols, sounds, and meanings combined is being expanded steadily. This process shall depend on how a person interprets, understands, and perceives objects and symbols as influenced by his or her environment and learning process (Biology Online, 2005). Among children, especially those of 1 to 2 years of age, the early developments in language can be very well observed in their constant cooing, imitation of adult sounds and words, babbling, and use of shortened words and sentences (Biology Online, 2005). Lev Vygotsky’s Views on the Roots of Though and Language Lev Semenovich Vygotsky is a German psychologist who explained and expounded on the genetic approach to the early developments of thoughts and concepts in human development. He connected the changes and transitions occurring in this process from childhood to adulthood through a series of human developmental stages (Marxist Internet Archive, 1990). Although his theories have been rejected in the United States during the earlier part of the political conflict between the U. S. and Soviet Union, his works still became popular as the Cold War ended up to present date. His works basically revolved around the roots of thought and language. It will be easier to understand Vygotsky’s theories in psychology by understanding the main arguments from which his theories are rooted from. His main arguments about intelligence and cognitions state that, (1) thinking is understood developmentally in terms of its roots and succeeding growth at the individual and cultural levels of analysis; (2) thinking is interceded by semiotic mechanisms like speech which can be considered as the most powerful of such mechanisms; and (3) there are certain thinking processes like problem solving, voluntary memory, and self-regulation which have roots from social processes and interactions (Vygotsky cited in Goswami, 2004). As one may observe, more often than not, Vygotsky used the terms â€Å"speech† and â€Å"thinking† than language and thought. This preference to use such terms was believed to be linked with his perception of speech as a social or shared process (Lloyd, 1995). For Vygotsky, the developments of thinking and speech are two separate entities: thought being non-verbal and language being non-intellectual. However, he explained that during a specific time in a person’s life (around the age of two), the lines of development of these two areas start to meet again to induce the creation of a new behavior (Vygotsky cited in Schutz, 2004). He was able to expound his positions on this concept as he noted that, (1) thinking and speech have different roots at the start of their development; (2) at the beginning, there will be a pre-intellectual stage for speech and a pre-linguistic stage for thought; (3) there will come a point in time when these two aspects shall follow different curves unaffected with each other; (4) at a second point, their curves shall meet where thought will turn verbal, and speech, on the other hand, will turn rational; and lastly, (5) thinking and speech are not always overlying each other (Lloyd, 1995). Vygotsky’s theory has also been particular about the construction of words and acquisition of word meanings. He explains that the formation of word and word meaning is in a way related to how a child perceives a problem in communicating with his or her guardian. Vygotsky claims that word meanings are derived from the problem of not knowing what to call or how to describe a specific object, feeling, or thought, which the child usually asks from an adult (cited in Schutz, 2004). Vygotsky also acquired interest in understanding the possibilities that language may indeed affect how a person thinks. In contrast to Piaget’s focus on children’s egocentric and private speech, Vygotsky dealt with language as a form of social communication which progressively supports both language and thinking process. Applications of Vygotsky’s Constructivist Cognition Concept to a Child’s Education and Language formation Vygotsky’s Language Acquistion Theory has been influenced by the constructivist approach. In constructivism, problem solving is the core idea of all forms of learning, thinking, and development; that is, as a child encounters a problem and discovers consequences for its solutions, he or she eventually forms his or her thinking and understanding of a certain concept (Vygotsky cited in Brewer, 2007). In the constructivist view, prior knowledge plays a big part on how a child will perceive things as he or she grows up; that is, it is important for the learner to be able to construct new information into his or her current knowledge because the information connected to the learner’s prior experiences shall be forgotten easily. In application to real life situations, teachers can try to learn about the children’s prior knowledge about a specific problem or a specific topic which confuses them in order to gauge what the children already know and help them understand different experiences (Brewer, 2007). In relation to language development, Vygotsky also coined the concept of the zone of proximal development, which emphasizes that children acquire knowledge about objects and concepts they see as confusing through directed interactions from guardians, teachers, and parents. He explained that what children learn with the guidance and assistance of people around them appears to be a lot more suggestive of their learning development compared to what they usually do alone (Vygotsky, 1987, qtd. in Lloyd, 1995). Thus, speech and word meaning which is acquired by a child alone may not give him or her the utmost linguistic potential he or she can have. Language development as well as the other aspects of development a child goes through in the early years is highly important regardless of the learning genre or theory followed. Theories like Vygotsky’s language acquisition theory are formulated to give people specific basis of the different developmental processes. A child’s language development is never as plain as teaching him or her words and names; rather, it is a complex process which involves crucial elements and key areas where parents, teachers, and concerned guardians have to focus on in order to help the child realize his or her full potential. References Biology Online. (2005, October 3). Language Development.Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. biology-online. org/dictionary/Language_development Brewer, W. (2007). Learning theory: Constructivist approach. Answers. com. Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. answers. com/topic/learning-theory-constructivist-approach Goswami, U. (2004). Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. Lloyd. P. (1995). Psychology: Cognitive and Language Development. Leicester, UK: British Psychological Society. Marxist Internet Archive. (1990). Vygotsky, Lev Semenovich (1896-1934). Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. marxists. org/glossary/people/v/y. htm#vygotsky-lev Schutz, R. (2004, December 5). Vygotsky language acquisition. English Made in Brazil. Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. sk. com. br/sk-vygot. html Wells, K. R. (2008). Cognitive development. Encyclopedia of Children’s Health. Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. healthofchildren. com/C/Cognitive-Development. html

12 Angry Men Essay Example for Free

12 Angry Men Essay In 12 angry men there are many themes that are present one of the major themes that is found was present is, one determined and skilled individual can wield a lot of influence. Juror number eight is a â€Å"quiet, thoughtful, gentle man† he seesall points of the argument and wants to find the truth. On the other hand juror number three is â€Å"a very strong, very forceful, extremely opinionated man† his opinion is all that matters and if other people don’t agree with it they are automatically wrong. All of the characters in this story help develop the theme but in my opinion jurors number three and eight play a very large role in it. Juror three is a very outward with his opinion from the beginning. He lets everyone know what he thinks and that no one will be able to change his mind. In his mind his opinion is the most important thing and no one can say anything against it. When others try to look at all the facts and have a discussion he finds that it is pointless and a waste of his time because he will not change his vote from guilty and that means everyone else must be the ones to agree with him. See more: Satirical elements in the adventure of Huckleberry Finn essay This juror is a man who is very â€Å"easily excitable† as the say in the book many times. He will snap at any moment when someone else is trying to share their opinion just because they say something that doesn’t support what he thinks. His anger plays a large part in developing him as a character. There are many jurors that don’t want to deal with him and are scared to speak up to say what they think because there is no telling the next time number three will start to yell at them. The other characters see him as an angry man who is too stubborn to listen to what anyone else has to say. In this book juror three often explodes into extremely loud yelling while everyone else is trying to keep calm and decide on a fair verdict on the case. At one point during the story juror number eight is trying to calmly explain the facts and evidence that proves juror threes opinion wrong and instead of calmly listening like everyone else he tries to attack juror eight; having to be held back by three of the oher men. This shows a lot about his character as a man. He is a loud man set in his ways that has lived with one opinion on the situation nd isnt willing to change it. The boy who is being charged with allegedly killing his father is black and that causes a lot of mixed opinions within the jury room. Juror three doesn’t seem to like anyone who is black or from a certain area of town which is not the best. There is a larhe amount of prejudice in this book not only from juror three,  and it seems to alter a lot of the thoughts of some of the jurors. The way that he tries to influence people to be on his side is not very effective at all, no one wants to listen to him because all he does is yell and scream at them without backing up what hes saying with any facts. Juror number eight also has a set opinion from the beginning of the story but he has a completely different way of approaching things. He is very quiet and keeps his thoughts to himself at the beginning. When it gets to talking about facts and evidence he has a lot to say but doesn’t try and force the other jurors to agree with him. He only wants to fully discuss all of the information that has been presented to try and determine what the fair verdict should be. At first I don’t think he was even 100% sure that he wanted to vote not guilty he did it mostly because a boys life is at atake and he couldn’t let that go without talking about it. Juror eight is a calm man who is very nice and tries his best to state what he thinks is right but not do it in a forceful way. He isnt saying that there is only his opinion on the case but he also doesn’t say that what anyone else thinks is wrong. This man wanted only to try and come to find the truth instead of just saying that the boy is guilty without full examining everything. Juror eight took the time to look at the facts and put personal opinions aside which is the compete opposite of what juror number three did. The way that he stayed very calm even when everyone else was yelling at each other is one thing that I think really helped influence othe r jurors to change their vote. Even after jjuror wight said only a few things they tooka asecond vote and he already had convinced someone to agree with his view on the case. The way he could calmly debate what everyone else was gettinginto large arguments about without changing from the very calm and not outspoken person that he is was a large factor in amking other people change their vote. He brought up very valid points that no one else would have thought twice about without him. By keeping his personal feelings on the boys race etc he was able to come up with a better end result than that of everyone else. He is a very influencial man who was really only looking for the truth in a case that is made up of a lot of lies and exxagerations. Juror eight and juror three might seem like complete opposites who could never be thought of as having some things alike. This though is not completely true. Yes, they have very different personalities and ways of going about explaining their  opinions but there is some similarity. They both have aclear stance on whether or not they think the boy is guilty. Also they both want to convince the rest of the jury that their opinion is right. Even through all the arguments and yelling that was done they do have a couple of things that are similar between them. The way that everyone in this book especially juror eight debated his point shows how someone who is determined and who knows what they are saying can convince many to believe their side. Juror eight in the end got everyone to vote not guilty because of the way he went about explaining his point. He didn’t yell and just say that his opinion was right just because he thought so, there was evidence to back it up that no one else would have seen if it weren’t for him.

Memory Test For Positive And Negative Words Psychology Essay

Memory Test For Positive And Negative Words Psychology Essay In the subject of Word Memory, many different types of researches have been done in the past. In many of these researches we can find that many different factors affect the way we remember some words. Examples of different factors are familiarity, imageability, arousal, and valence. In this particular study we took a look at one of these factors, negative and positive words. The subjects in this experiment were shown a list of 20 different words, and our hypothesis: subjects with low mean age will remember more negative words than positive ones. However we did not find any relevant difference between the two groups of words, more extensive studies could be carried out on the subject to see relevant differences. Introduction. There has been broad different researches in the field of Word Memory, and experts have been trying to figure out whether word recollection is affected by different variables. In some experiments it has come to light that word recollection is greatly affected by word concreteness. Concrete words are easier to remember than abstract words (Walker, Ian; Hulme, Charles, 1999). But yet it is not the only factor that can affect word memory. In some other cases, it was shown that the results were affected by the frequency of the words. As shown in the study conducted by Robert E. Guttentag and Donna Carroll (1997), word recollection is greatly affected by the frequency of the words: The findings indicated that subjects were better at remembering the mental operations utilized at study for low frequency than for high frequency words. In this research in particular we are going to focus on the emotionality of the words, such as positive and negative words. In long-term memory, negative information is better remembered than neutral information. Differences in processes important to working memory may contribute to this emotional memory enhancement (Kensinger, Elizabeth A.; Corkin, Suzanne, 2003) As stated emotion in memory can have quite a big impact. The way we feel about words meaning can greatly change the amount of time we will remember that specific word. In another experiment, subjects were depression induced, and had to undergo recollection of words. The experiments showed that emotion played a key role into the controlled group and the other. The subjects were recolling words based on the emotions induced from the experimenters. (Bradley, Mogg, Galbraith Perrett, 1993). Our goal is to investigate on the effect of emotionality in words recollection. Subjects will be shown 2 different groups of words for a total of 20 words. Negative words and Positive words. Since pre-experiment we knew that the age of the participants and size of the group were relatively small, we hypothesized that the participants will remember negative words more than positive words. Methods. Design: The experiment was a within subject design and the controlled variable was the valency of the words, positive and negative. The number of the words that each participant would remember was the dependent variable. The problem of order effect was overcome by creating two separate powerpoint presentations. The order of the words was also different and randomized. Participants: All of the participants were part of the psychology class at Aberdeen university. 16 subjects. Out of all the participants only 1 was male, the rest 15 were females. The mean age of the participants was 20.69, with a SD of 2.44 Apparatus: The main tool of the experiment were presentations done by using PowerPoint. All the subjects were presented with 20 words (10 positive 10 negative). The source were we took the words is Bellezza, Greenwald and Banajis (1986) catalogue of words. The 20 words were on a pleasantness scale. Positive pleasantness mean: 4.50, negative pleasantness mean: 1,64. In order to randomize and finding out the mean of pleasantness of the words also the program Microsoft Excel was used. Later for the results and analysis, a software named Statistical Package for Social Science was used. Procedure: Each subject was given a computer were the power point presentation was started. The presentation gave the instructions to each participant. The first slide showed the participants that they would be shown a list of 20 words, each word was shown on screen for only 2 seconds. Afterwards they would have to remember as many words as they could from the ones shown. It also said that between the acquisition and recollection of the words they would take a 2 minutes mathematical questionnaire, and then they could write down as many words as they could remember from the slides. After the experiment was over, we recorded the results of each participant and their sex and age. We then took those results and analyzed them using SPSS. Results. The results were the following: the mean number of words remembered for negative condition was 4.00 with a SD of 1.63, the standard error was 0.41. Instead for the positive condition, the mean was 3.69 with a SD of 1.54 and the standard error of 0.38. The results can be seen in chart below (Figure 1). Figure 1. Means for both negative and positive scores. Each top bar rappresents the plus or minus 1 for standard error. Since the results shown in Figure 1 very similar to each other, more analysis had to be done. A paired samples t-test was used in this case. The t-test showed that the mean for positive condition was 3.69, with a SD of 1.54. The mean for the negative condition was 4.00 with a SD of 1.63. Therefore the results showed us that there were no relevant differences between the two condition. Due to the results been non-significant, we can state that our hypothesis is not supported and it could be rejected. Discussion. According to Thomas Hasher (2006), the phenomena stated in our hypothesis would happen if the subjects were of younger age. Unfortunately as we saw in our results, our hypothesis, that negative words would be remembered more than positive words, was rejected. This could be due to different factors such as sex, age (Thomas Hasher, 2006), ethnicity and numbers of subject. Many different things could be the reason why we did not receive the results we were expecting. For example, the number of our participant was limited to 16. In a case where we would of have 100 or 1000 we could of seen the differences in the means curve. Also the words were a limited number. A list of 20 words could be too few to prove the hypothesis. For future studies these aspects should be observed and improved in order to see results more towards to our hypothesis. Conclusion. To conclude, the results in this experiment were not to expectations. The low number of participants and the list of few words were the main factors for these results. In future experiments perhaps we would take in consideration these factors and also improve other particulars, such as space where the experiment is taken; perhaps a single room for each participant would have impact on the recollection of words (less distractions). And also the time and task before the recollection, could be a bit longer time and different/more challenging task.

Effects of Overpopulation and Industrialization on the Environment Essa

Effects of Overpopulation and Industrialization on the Environment Throughout history, the world’s population has expanded in an extremely exponential fashion-- taking over three million years to achieve a one billion person benchmark, it then only took 130, 30, 15, 12, and 11 years to reach subsequent billions, respectively. (Southwick, 159) Such a massive and still increasing population, combined with the environmentally detrimental repercussions of industrialization (as a result of the need to sustain such a large population), namely pollution from fossil fuels, has begun to take a serious toll on our planet’s ecosystem. Moreover, â€Å"some scientists have calculated that an optimal human population on earth in terms of reasonable living standards is no more than 2 billion people.† (Southwick, 161) Already, we are well over this â€Å"optimal† population level at more than 6 billion people with projections of growing by another 2 to 4 billion in this century. Still, with the advent of modern technologies, primarily in the areas of medicine and agriculture, humans â€Å"have effectively increased the size of the globe over the last two centuries, in terms of the maximum population which it will support.† (Dolan, 58) Nonetheless, in spite of such stark improvements in technological efficiency and capability, the fact remains that one in five people worldwide lives malnourished and without adequate housing. Equally important, and especially pertaining to the topic at hand, is the notion that such overpopulation, in conjunction with industrialization on a global scale, has led to increased emissions of harmful pollutants, some of which can cause ozone depletion and global warming. Global warming, which will be examined shortly, is the phen... ...nmental salvation and continuity. This transition, led by developed nations, must include a commitment to the efficient research, development, and production of alternate fuel sources—those that are renewable, clean, and cost efficient (ie, hydrogen fuel). Otherwise, the uncertain long run implications of our current excessive consumption patterns may bring about the end of existence, as we know it. Sources: Dolan, Edwin G., "TANSTAAFL: The Economic Strategy for Environmental Crisis" 1974, pp. 55-72. Ponting, Clive. Chapter 13, "The Second Great Transition," St. Martins Press, NYC, 1991, pp. 288 Southwick, Charles H., "Global Ecology in Human Perspective" Oxford Univ. Press, 1996, pp. 159-182. Stanitski, C. et al (eds.), Chemistry in Context, Applying Chemistry to Society, Mcgraw-Hill, 2003 Internet 1 (http://cop5.unfccc.int/convkp/begconkp.html)

Creationism in Public Schools Essay -- Teaching Education

Creationism in Public Schools Teaching Creationism in Schools The question as to whether or not creationism should be taught in public schools is a very emotional and complex question. It can be looked at from several different angles, its validity being one of them. Despite the lack of evidence to support the fundamentalist idea of creationism, that in itself is not enough to warrant its exclusion from the curriculum of public schools in the United States. The question is far more involved and complex. One way to address the question is whether or not creationism, in itself, is a valid idea to be taught in public schools. The answer to this can be yes. Not only should a student in American public schools learn and acquire knowledge in empirical sciences, and other tangible facts both in history and other courses, but he should also learn how to think and make decisions for himself. Unfortunately, as it turns out, creationism is in direct conflict with the biological theory of evolution. Many fundamentalist propose that creationism should replace, or at least be offered as an alternative to Darwin’s theory of evolution. This is not the right approach. Creationism, as exemplified in the book of Genesis, should not be taught in a science course. Science runs on a certain set of rules and principles being: (1) it is guided by natural law, (2) it has to be explanatory by reference to natural law, (3) its conclusions lack finality and therefore may be altered or changed, (4) it is also testable against the empirical world, and finally (5) it is falsifiable. These characteristics define the laws, boundaries, and guidelines that science follows. In a science course, all knowledge conveyed is shown, or has been shown in the past, to exemplify a strict adherence to these qualities. Creationism, unfortunately in the eyes of Christian fundamentalist, does not exemplify any adherence whatsoever to these rules and guidelines of science. Therefore, it should not be included in the science curriculum in public schools, even as an alternative to evolution. Another idea is that which is held by those who subscribe to the idea of scientific creationism. Scientific creationism, as it relates to this topic, states that God was the creator, and that evolution is simply a means, developed by Him, of conservation. Due to this definition ... ...plausible alternative. Even if the Book of Genesis happened to find a place in the English curriculum of public schools, or an any other curriculum for that matter, it would still violate the First Amendment of the Constitution of the United States. Even if all these hurdles were overcome, it would still be hotly debated by different religions as to which story of creation to teach. For all of these reasons, it is impossible for any version of creationism to be taught in public schools in the United States. As one can see, the question of whether or not creationism should be taught in public schools is not so much a question of should it be taught, as it is more of a question of can it be taught. Can the Book of Genesis, or even a version of it be taught legally as part of a standardized curriculum? The answer is no. Can Native American versions of creation be taught? The answer is no. Can any idea of creation, subscribed to by any religion be taught legally? The answer is no. Should it be taught? Yes. Where then should it be taught legally, if not in the public school system? Probably, the best environment would be the home. The best teacher would probably be the parent.

Nelson Mandela :: essays research papers

Nelson Mandela's greatest pleasure, his most private moment, is watching the sun set with the music of Handel or Tchaikovsky playing. Locked up in his cell during daylight hours, deprived of music, both these simple pleasures were denied him for decades. With his fellow prisoners, concerts were organised when possible, particularly at Christmas time, where they would sing. Nelson Mandela finds music very uplifting, and takes a keen interest not only in European classical music but also in African choral music and the many talents in South African music. But one voice stands out above all - that of Paul Robeson, whom he describes as our hero. The years in jail reinforced habits that were already entrenched: the disciplined eating regime of an athlete began in the 1940s, as did the early morning exercise. Still today Nelson Mandela is up by 4.30am, irrespective of how late he has worked the previous evening. By 5am he has begun his exercise routine that lasts at least an hour. Breakfast is by 6.30, when the days newspapers are read. The day s work has begun. With a standard working day of at least 12 hours, time management is critical and Nelson Mandela is extremely impatient with unpunctuality, regarding it as insulting to those you are dealing with. When speaking of the extensive travelling he has undertaken since his release from prison, Nelson Mandela says: I was helped when preparing for my release by the biography of Pandit Nehru, who wrote of what happens when you leave jail. My daughter Zinzi says that she grew up without a father, who, when he returned, became a father of the nation. This has placed a great responsibility of my shoulders. And wherever I travel, I immediately begin to miss the familiar - the mine dumps, the colour and smell that is uniquely South African, and, above all, the people. I do not like to be away for any length of time. For me, there is no place like home. Mandela accepted the Nobel Peace Prize as an accolade to all people who have worked for peace and stood against racism. It was as much an award to his person as it was to the ANC and all South Africa s people. In particular, he regards it as a tribute to the people of Norway who stood against apartheid while many in the world were silent.

Statement of Intention

STATEMENT OF INTENTION. Danny Cronyn. The following persuasive piece will be written in the form of a speech to be presented at a school assembly. Addressing the prompt – we conform to stereotypes and expectations far more than we think – this speech will investigate the colossal impact that societal expectations and stereotypical norms have on a person’s identity and show the true extent to which we subconsciously conform to them. My speech contends that we simply accept what the majority and masses do as ‘the norm’ and conform to said norm without even thinking twice about it and that in doing this, we limit our ability to be individuals.The purpose of my speech is to illustrate how conforming to stereotypes and societal expectations can have a homogenising effect on identity and restrict our capacity to be individuals. I wish to show to my audience how the innate human need to belong is so strong that we subconsciously conform in order to feel a s ense of connection and how external factors such as societal norms, stereotypes, rituals and traditions can be defining factors of our identities, even if we do not realise just how much.This will be done through using examples of these factors to which we intuitively conform, such as being clothed, getting presents on Christmas, girls shaving their legs and not picking our nose or farting in public. These examples of things to which we conform to without questioning will display to the audience the magnitude of influence that stereotypes and expectations have on our identity.Writing in the form of a persuasive speech was the best method of communicating my purpose and contention (that we simply accept what the majority and masses do as ‘the norm’ and conform to said norm without even thinking twice about it and that in doing this, we limit our ability to be individuals) to the audience as I am able to use expressive skills such as voice and facial gesture to strengthen and support my arguments and am also able to physically see the audience’s reaction to my piece.The use of a questioning tone and concerned and confused facial gestures will act as visual and physical representations of the tone of my piece and through this, I will push the audience to question their way of life and drive them to see the conformity and error of their homogonised identities. By performing my speech to a live audience, I will be able to play off of audience reaction and cater my tone and intensity according to their mood and response to the issue.My concerned, questioning and confused tone will reflect the way I feel about conformist lifestyle and my strong-worded and assuring language (must, indubitably, alarmed) will push the audience to believe that I have a well developed and highly thought out contention and assure them that being a non-conformist individual is the best way to live their lives.Through contrasting the benefits of uniqueness and individuali ty with the restricting aspects of conformist living, and along with my strong-worded arguments, I anticipate that the audience will side with me in believing that we simply accept what the majority and masses do as ‘the norm’ and conform to said norm without even thinking twice about it and that in doing this, we limit our ability to be individuals.I have aimed my speech at the ‘common man’ because the everyday person – bland, boring, conformist and easily persuaded – is the perfect candidate for my speech, which will hopefully push them to question their conformity and to embrace their individual identities. It is aimed at them because I believe that these people are blissfully unaware of how their standardised and ‘by-the-book’ lifestyles are negatively impacting on their lives. I wish to show them how embracing individuality could greatly improve the way they feel about themselves and the way in which they live their day-to-da y lives.Meaning and my central idea will be conveyed through these contrasting lifestyles and through highlighting the homogenising effect that conforming to stereotypes and expectations has on our individuality and identity. My central idea and contention that we simply accept what the majority and masses do as ‘the norm’ and conform to said norm without even thinking twice about it and that in doing this, we limit our ability to be individuals was inspired by the collection of poems Sometimes Gladness by Bruce Dawe, in hich it is proposed that belonging to society shapes our identity, but in doing so, also has a homogenising effect and that the rituals and traditions of the society of which we are a part, also shape us. I agree with this idea and believe that being conformist and homogenised beings is a negative thing, that we don’t question societal norms, expectations and stereotypes nearly enough, we merely accept them without even considering the possibilit y that they could be wrong and that rituals and traditions of our culture shape us more than we notice.These key ideas (‘belonging to society shapes our identity, but in doing so, also has a homogenising effect’ and ‘the rituals and traditions of the society of which we are a part shape us’), which are presented in the poems â€Å"Enter Without So Much As Knocking† and â€Å"Condolences of the Season† are the concepts which influences my central idea that we simply accept what the majority and masses do as ‘the norm’ and conform to said norm without even thinking twice about it and that in doing this, we limit our ability to be individuals.In the poem â€Å"Enter Without So Much AS Knocking† the idea that belonging to society shapes our identity, but also has a homogenising effect is explored through showing the life cycle of a person from birth to death and how he conformed to societal norms his entire life. Through showin g how we conform to day-to-day commands and norms such as â€Å"WALK. DON’T WALK. TURN LEFT†¦NO BREATHING EXCEPT BY ORDER. BEWARE OF THIS.WATCH OUT FOR THAT†, Dawe shows the homogenising effect that conformist lifestyle has on people and the ways in which they conform to stereotypes and expectations far more than we realise. In â€Å"Condolences of the Season† Bruce Dawe shows how our identity is like a kit, a puzzle to be put together. He shows the ways in which rituals, family and other external factors shape our identity through showing generations of a family pointing our similarities in a small child at a family gathering.These features will be reflected in my speech when I talk about how external factors such as family traditions and rituals (presents on Christmas) and societal expectations (wearing clothing) influence our identity greatly, sometimes without us even realising. The structural element of beginning and ending a piece with a near identica l statement which is shown in â€Å"Enter Without So Much AS Knocking† and Soliloquy For One Dead† will be reflected in my piece by beginning and ending my speech with my contention (we simply accept what the majority and masses do as ‘the norm’ and conform to said norm without even thinking twice about it and that in doing this, we limit our ability to be individuals) to show a distinct beginning and ending to my piece and also to reinforce the contention. I want my contention to be the first thing that the audience hears when they come in and the last thing they hear when they leave so that it stick in their mind and is something they are forever considering.Another structural element from Dawe’s poems that I will include is metaphor. Metaphor is shown in â€Å"The Tackle Box† through the use of a hook to be symbolic of/a metaphor for the pain that a father inflicted on his family. I will use the metaphor of sheep in my speech to represent h ow people flock together much like sheep and simply follow what the majority are doing without question. This metaphoric comparison between human beings and sheep (an animal) will push the audience to look unfavourably upon their conformist actions and sway them to make individual choices.My speech supports the prompt (we conform to stereotypes and expectations far more than we think) by showing the ways in which we conform to societal expectations with no questioning as to why, we simply just do it. My speech takes the prompt and presents the idea that social norms, stereotypes and expectations have a immense impact on identity formation and shows the ways in which we simply accept what the majority and masses do as ‘the norm’ and conform to said norm without even thinking twice about it and that in doing this, we limit our ability to be individuals.

Haitian Vodou Essay

Vodou, A Haitian piety profoundly rooted in colonialism stems from some(prenominal) Afri put up sources, which squander constructed and maintained a hybrid Africana and European diaspora in the Caribbean. In an military campaign to preserve African customs duty and spectral article of faith, strivers in Haiti prior to the Haitian transformation of 1791, established and developed the heterogeneous morality kn profess as Vodou. As Vodou became a much prominent reflexion of hard worker en faduration in Haiti the hybridization between tralatitious Africana devotion and European trust fashi aned a new scheme of belief.The fusion of Catholicism from Europe and African religions make up one of the around influential religions in Haiti at once, in item Vodou run fors an imperative single-valued function in Haitian life. In addition to having a enormous effect on Haitian religious praxiss, Vodou withal picnics a fundament aloney peachy percentage in driving Hait ian politics, economics, fellowship, and social relations. From a student and non-Haitian prospect I chafferk to procure cognition on how Vodou has and continues to play a nix role in every pure tone of Haitian life.Through analyzing and cross- interrogation of several school school texts it appears that without boundaries Vodou is most-valuable. send ons delving into how Vodou effects nearly every aspect of Haitian culture I would deal to first analyze the importance of experienceing the roots and origin of a belief and practise that has become such(prenominal) a prominent aspect of Haitian life. In the eighteenth century the slave mint in Haiti ushered in a rate of African slaves from several(a) groups. These groups of African plenty brought with them to Haiti their imposts, beliefs, and life styles.In Haitian Vodou of Creole Religions of the Caribbean, the actors demesne that the slave trade was in accompaniment the European way of destroying all pagan connections to the syndicatelands of the slaves (Fernandez-Olmos and Paravisini-Gerbert 101). European slave owners and slave traders survey it necessary to imbibe European ideals and beliefs onto their slaves, ridding and raze the beliefs and tradition of their native land. In this approve the slave trade played a significant role in the unveiling of Vodou, catalyzing Afro-European syncretism into a new belief body.Vodou began as a way for slaves to hold on to their cultural beliefs, and helped refute the fabrications of Catholic religion that the French attempted to employ, as they adage it necessary to condition African slaves to their lifestyle (102). In my opinion Afro-European syncretism is one of the more complex and intriguing religious developments as it pertains to Vodou. In enchant Africas concealed forefinger author Gert Chesi describes the fusion of African and European culture stating that slaves brought with them the gods of Africa to the Caribbean where t hey then amalgamate with the Saints and other Catholic and Christian symbols (Chesi 231).The imposition of Catholic and Christian beliefs by Europeans onto African slaves make it nearly impossible for African slaves to persist in entirely devoted to their home land beliefs and traditions. African slaves in Haiti follow Vodou as a means of maintaining their traditional beliefs, however, Christian and Catholic ideals were still important influential positionors in the establishment of Vodou. The booze practi cryy affiliated with Vodou known, as Lwa ar analogous to Saints in the Catholic Church.Slaves in Haiti dealt with the pressures of forcibly having to adapt to European religion by integrating their belief system with that of the European belief system. I think that Slaves in Haiti employ Vodou as a alter factor in Haitian culture. The rite and practice that developed by the consolidation of European tradition with African tradition ensures that African tradition ent rust remain considerably important regardless of the fact that Europeans once tried to dismantle African tradition and impose Western tradition on those slaves living in Haiti. Vodou serves as a mechanism for passing on tradition from contemporaries to propagation.In vodoun Truth and envisage the author sound outs that Vodou has emerged as a vibrant cultural force in twenty-first century Haiti (Hurbon 126). This program line supports the idea that Vodou has and continues to perk up a role in Haitian life and Haitian culture. Vodou has undoubtedly helped restore an almost confounded identity to African slaves in Haiti, and has allowed generation after generation to know and chthonianstand the beliefs of the homeland from which their ancestors originated. The foundation of m some(prenominal) Haitian affairs may non be solely rooted in Vodou, however, the religion holds weight in many policy-making spheres by dint ofout Haiti.Starting from the moment of its development, Vo dou has been semipolitically important to Haiti. In fact, its very foot resulted from various political, cultural, and religious struggles for freedom (33). afterward analyzing the roots of Vodou it has become quite unembellished that Vodou played an important role during Haitis revolutionary period. During and before the Haitain revolution Vodou was used as a means of protect and politicizing the interest of Haitian slaves. From that fourth dimension forward Haitian people harbor displace to use Vodou as a political tool to protect their interests and assets.Vodou has indeed been subjected to persecution at the pass arounds of twain Church and state leaving many non-believers and outsiders to attri only ife detrimental connotations to Vodou as a whole (117). In 1835 Vodou began to publically suffer from political ostracizing under president Jean-Pierre Boyer who passed a punishable figure that called for the imprisonment of six months to two old age for followers of Vod ou practicing superstitious act (118). It waits to me that the spring behind the ban on Vodou practices not only stemmed from political issues occurring at the time, but overly from past political experiences in Haiti.Hurbon does not call forth Boyers reasoning behind implementing a penal code, therefore allo acquireg one to speculate whether or not Boyer, although Haitian had ties to France. The reason I flirt this point to light is because for one, Jean-Pierre Boyer sounds comparatively French and secondly Boyer implemented a code that put restrictions on a religion that has roots deep at bottom African culture. In addition to dealing with the idea of possible imprisonment, if caught practicing Vodou, Haitians also set about the possibility of abandoning and giving up the African culture and belief that was associated with Vodou.In chemical reaction to government restrictions some Haitians created secret societies in devote to keep the bonds of Vodou rite and ties to chemical attraction in motion. In 1957 President Francois Duvalier also known as Papa atomic number 101 started a political rehabilitation for Vodou (118). Duvaliers involvement in Vodou was for the soul tendency of engaging the Lwa through ceremonies in order to gain the Lwas good will and also to spark enthusiasm in those who practice Vodou. Papa Docs establishment marked a period characterized by dark magic and sorcery.This period in Haitian history displays the negative aspects a lot associated with Vodou. In my opinion President Francois Duvaliers sagaciousness of Vodou curtails from misinterpretation and misuse. Duvalier did not perk upm to grasp the reasoning behind sealed Vodou rituals and ceremonies, using them only as a way to advance himself politically. During Duvaliers influence Haiti saw tremendous political neuter resulting from the misunderstanding or misuse of Vodou. On one hand Jean-Pierre Boyer refused to let any one in Haiti practice Vodou because of the negative connotations surrounding the religion.On the other hand Francois Duvalier used Vodou to bolster his political appeal, which demolished the meaning and reasoning behind the ceremonies and rituals performed by those who practiced and truly understood and comprehended the meaning that those Vodou acts carry. In Creole Religions of the Caribbean, the authors mention that within Vodou practices the chief communicators that draw konesans or connaissance/knowledge atomic number 18 the Oungand and the Manbo (Fernandez-Olmos and Paravisini-Gerbert 107). The Oungand and the Manbo are believed to apprehend knowledge passed down from the Lwa.The Oungand and the Manbo act as political leaders and have untaught political power within their own company because the ability to communicate with the Lwa is looked up to. In Michel Laguerres book Voodoo and Politics the author states that Francois Duvalier used the political power of the Oungand and the Manbo to establish legitimacy amo ng those who practiced Vodou (Laguerre 87). Today Vodou can be delineate in popular culture as dark, sadistic, and involving many acts of superstition, denying it a position aboriginal to Haitian culture.However, despite the misconceptions surrounding Vodou today many religious works are carried out by Haitian elites. This goes to try out yet another(prenominal) transformation in Haitian politics, and Vodous role in do a new system of life. From my examination of the texts that emphasized Vodous descent to Haitian politics I have reason that Vodou does in fact regard politics in Haitian communities and Haiti as a whole. The relationship between Vodou and Haitian economics is a pine-standing phenomenon that has existed prior to the Haitian revolution in 1791 and continues to exist today.The slave trades influence on the creation of Vodou associate the introduction of the religion and also the economics involved between masters and sellers of slaves. During this time the Haiti an scrimping was being touched by the slave trade. As the slaves grew weary, a number of rebellions occurred and Vodou greatly affected the orchard sparing that the Haitian people primarily were forced into. According to Omos and Gerbert, the providence in Haiti shifted from one of plantation to that of a cracker-barrel economy of subsistent farmers working their own lands (Fernandez-Olmos and Paravisini-Gerbert 103).Vodou practices and rituals play an important role in shaping and maintaing Haitian economics. The initiation and sacrificial rituals performed by many Vodou sects involve a great amount of pecuniary sacrifice (Fernandez-Olmos and Paravisini-Gerbert 117). From my examination of several texts, including that of Olmos and Gerbet I have concluded that proviso for the many Vodou festivals, initiations, and temple gatherings are intensive and call for many financial sacrifices from those who may already be financially unstable. Animal sacrifice plays an important ro le in the finances of Haitian people.In Voodoo Africas Secret Power the author, Gert Chesi, included various photographs of Haitian Vodou sacrifices and rituals. many an(prenominal) of the photographs throughout Chesis book showed the sacrificing of cattle, sheep, and chicken. The cross-examination of various texts did not leave me with much education on the Haitian economy as it related to Vodou, however, I was able to pretend that the economic sacrifices made by Haitian people were performed in order to obtain personal advancements or for the betterment of the residential area as a whole.Some sacrifices were performed to win the protection and trust of the Lwa spirit up, and some sacrifices were performed in hopes that the Lwa would shed some rain to uphold planation production. I think that the Haitian economy and the Vodou religion are dependent on each other. The dependency I see in the relationship stems from the fact that without an economy like the one in Haiti, Vodou would not be as prominent or even meaningful to the Haitian people. The economy as it is creates a buffer for Vodou as a religion.The economy allows for Haitians to use their beliefs and connections with the spirits to envoke hope, or optimism that the plantation life in Haiti will somehow flourish. This claim can be supported through the existence of rituals performed for protection, knowledge, and even rainfall. In Hurbons, Olmos and Geberts, Chesis, Laguerre and Michels and metalworkers comments of Vodou in Haitian culture one thing is for certain, Vodou has and continues to influence communities through and through. In Chesis pictorial work out of Vodou in Haiti one can see pictures of various ways that the religion is tie in to community.In one picture, Chesi captured a ritual being performed near a land where one individual was having a ritual performed on him (ritual not clear from picture) musical composition dozens of his Vodou community member looked on and supported him. What puzzles me the most is how instinctual and ritualized Vodou actually is. Chesis pictures show dozens and dozens of Haitian people flocking to support another Vodou practice, but for what reason? Why do these members feel so indebted to one another?From my observation the answer to this question comes from the round-eyed fact that Vodou needs a awareness of community mong its members to remain relevant. It was from the simple vehement to keep tradition relevant that Vodou stemmed, so it appears to me that the idea of community or family has been long standing, even deep within Vodous African roots. Hurbons choice of nomenclature within Voodoo Truth and Fantasy sheds lite on the communal aspect of Vodou a teeny differently. Like Chesi, Hurbon acknowledges the importance of community, even stating that Vodou bring families together in large gatherings, a festive way of ensuring that religious traditions will endure (Hurbon 14).In Hurbons text it appears that the family a nd passing of tradition from generation to generation is in fact important to the excerption of Vodou. In my examination of Hurbons text it seemed as though Hurbon was promoting a sense of balance of kinship and communal ties. Hurbon states that it is important to have family agreement in order to have a positive communal bond. virtuoso aspect of Hurbons text was that Vodou was often referred to as a cult utilise to spirits. Hurbon did not let the wording of her description interfere with the way information was conveyed, however, I found it quiet bias that she would call Vodou a cult.Personally I associate the word cult with negative connotations. It is indecipherable whether Hurbon planned on conveying Vodou in a negative light, but one thing is for certain a cult describes a group of people or the communal bond that Vodou encourages. In Michels and Smiths book, Voodou in Haitian Life and Culture Invisible Powers, The authors proceed to explain how the magical or superstitiou s aspect of Vodou conveys a sense of community among its supporters. The authors show that not only is Vodou practice a family effort, but a community effort as well.Smith and Michel both depict a type of Vodou were literally everyone in a community is involved. From modest children to the eldest members of a community, all play an important role in carrying on and performing the tradition of Vodou culture. The elaborate rituals and preparation described by the authors is only made possible through communal efforts. From my understanding of the community in Vodou culture, it appears that only through community and unity can tradition be kept alive.Despite any negative connotations Vodou may have, each author showed how important Vodou is in respects to several aspects of Haitian culture. Vodou is not only a religious matter, but also a political, economic, and social one as well. On May 14, 2013 guest lecturer Carnie Fabious stated, Vodou is a way of life. This statement alone sum s up what Vodou was, and what Vodou continues to be in regards to Haitian culture. Fabious voice communication show the importance that Vodou plays in all aspects of Haitian life, and demonstrates how relative the religion is to such a vast group of people.